In Part 1 on
Cognitive Load Theory (https://polymathtobe.blogspot.com/2023/02/learning-and-teaching-cognitive-load.html)
, the framework of WHAT Cognitive Load Theory is was laid out in principle,
following Oliver Lovell’s book on the
subject
Part 2 is on
how teachers can minimize extrinsic load on the student through honing
their presentation. (https://polymathtobe.blogspot.com/2023/04/learning-and-teaching-cognitive-load.html)
Part 4 is on how teachers can optimize intrinsic loads on the student. (https://polymathtobe.blogspot.com/2023/08/learning-and-teaching-cognitive-load.html)
This article roughly follows the book in examining how the teacher, coach, and learner can apply cognitive load theory to minimize the extrinsic loading on the working memory through structuring the practice plan.
The definitions
of intrinsic and extrinsic loads are defined again for ease of reference.
The extrinsic cognitive loads are:
·
A part of
the manner and structure of how the information is conveyed to the
learners.
·
Disruptive to the learning task because it
distracts the learner from learning by occupying valuable working memory space.
Whereas the intrinsic
cognitive loads are those that are critical to learning whatever it is that we
need to learn. They are:
·
Part of the nature of the information that we
are learning.
·
Core learning.
·
Information that we WANT the learner to have in
their working memory.
The critical limitation
is that the working memory has a finite capacity; that is, the intrinsic and
the extrinsic loads are vying for the same finite resource. One emphasis should
be placed on minimizing the extrinsic
load; that is, to offload unnecessary extrinsic cognitive load, to make space
in the working memory before optimizing the intrinsic loads.
Note that even
though Lovell’s book is relatively short, he presents quite a bit of results,
and information, and examples from many different subjects, so it is worthwhile
to read through the book.
Since I come
from two familiar yet also different points of view: teaching at a university
level and coaching, I will try to illustrate the points by giving simple
examples from both milieus.
Structuring the Practice
The details of
the points in
· Two
key differences exist between the classroom context and the sports context.
· Time
scales are different.
o Coaching
and sports have immediate consequences and results, so the “practices” and
examples happen in a much shorter time frame, it is then easier to miss the
teaching moments.
o The
amount of time devoted to practice are different for the classroom and the practice
field. Players expect to be active and moving, so the instruction must be
performed at a faster pace. The practice plan must reflect this pace.
o Time
for “informative” feedback is short, there are lots of missed opportunities.
· Emphasis
are Different: While both contexts are training students/players to act and
react effectively, i.e., learn to make better decisions, there are large
differences.
o The
classroom context is more conceptual, (System 2 response according to Kahneman
o Athletes
need to integrate the process much more quickly and be able to internalize and
convert the active learning mode into reactive execution mode, i.e. turn the
lessons into a process or a procedure quickly (System 1 according to Kahneman
· Observability
Differences:
o
Classroom results during practice sessions are sequential
and observable. The teacher can stop the progress and correct conceptual errors
as they happen.
o
Sporting results are immediate and only the
results can be observed, i.e., misconceptions in processing information and decision
making are not observable, only the result of the errors can be observed. i.e.,
coaches are usually not able to pinpoint the specific step where the error occurred.
Worked Examples:
The worked example is the most important
of the Cognitive Load Theory effects. It is a key to easing the transition from
being a beginner to being an expert. Worked Example serves as a way for the
student to “borrow” the experience and knowledge of the expert. To put that
into their long-term memory. Borrowed problems is organized, tested,
appropriate, short-circuits student misconceptions.
· Worked
Example (For the beginning students):
o
Key to Worked Examples:
§
Structure: Structure the practice to minimize
extraneous load.
§
Persist: Continue with worked examples in structured
environment for longer than we think necessary.
o
Strategy for student practicing worked examples.
§
Alternation: Ask students to solve a similar
problem right after being presented with a modelled solution. Keep the alternation
numerous and rapid.
§
Fading: When working similar problems is too
difficult, present similar problem to be worked with a step missing, to get
student to fill in the gap.
Practice Problem
The complementary exercise of the worked
example is the practice problem; both have their place in teaching.
o
Adding variations to the worked problems.
o
Increasing in challenges. Lead students to
discover for themselves.
Self-Explanation:
Give students opportunities to explain an
example to themselves in terms of the underlying principle. Explain why it
works for the specific example? Learn to discern the general and the specific.
o Example
specific prompts: Question about why the explanation is only valid for the
specific example.
§ Explaining
Incorrect answers.
§ Explaining
Correct Answers.
o General
prompts: Questions about why the explanation is valid in general.
§ Process
Prompts: Questions concerning the process or procedure.
· Notice:
What is new?
· Reason:
How does this impact my knowledge?
·
Monitor: What is still missing from my understanding?
§
Connection Prompts: Questions that lead
the student to make connections.
§ Anticipation
Prompts: Leading questions to entice students to extrapolate into the as
yet unknown.
§ Principle
Prompts: Connecting the specific with the general. Connect with the
principle.
o What
Self Explanation Won’t Do: Getting students to teach themselves what they
don’t know. This is a cognition trap for teachers,
Goal Free Effect:
Removing goals from the learning
experience also removes interacting elements of learning. Removing the means-ends
connection, freeing up the working memory. Removing the focus on “Getting to
the answer”, removes the stress from the learning experience. Allow students to
focus on learning.
o
Principle: Focus on goals can lead to students
accomplishing goals and completing tasks without learning. Focus on learning.
o Preconditions:
Teacher control conditions during the learning experience.
§ Restricted
Action: Simplify the conditions to unload the working memory.
§ Rapid
Feedback: Quick alternations between action and result, to help student
make the connection.
§ Reliable
Results: Make sure that action A results in Result A.
In the Sports and Coaching Context
Worked Examples:
The worked example in sports is the
demonstration of skills, tactics, strategy, and the time honored VBIQ. For the
beginner, each should be presented first in carefully separated steps and then
in integrated combinations until the completely integrated concept is demonstrated.
o Worked
Example (For the beginning students):
§
Key to Worked Examples:
·
Structure: Structure the practice to minimize
extraneous load. Do NOT overload with too many details at first.
·
Persist: Continue with demonstrations in a structured
environment for longer than we think necessary. But no longer.
§
Strategy for student practicing worked examples.
·
Alternation: Give the player a skill, tactic,
strategy idea to resolve after demonstrating the concept. Keep the alternation numerous
and rapid.
·
Fading: When working similar problems is too
difficult, present similar problem to be worked with a step missing, to get
student to fill in the gap.
Practice Problem
The complementary exercise of the demonstration
is the practice problem; both have their place in coaching.
o
Adding variations to the demonstration. Steadily
add complicating elements to the lesson until a full-fledged game concept is
the result.
o
Increasing in challenges. Make each progression
to levels of desired difficulties.
o
These would be:
§
Varying the pace and location at which the ball
is entered.
§
Scrimmaging against a better and faster team.
§
Situational practices with varying pace, difficulties.
§
Beware of creating challenges that are
nonsensical in sport. This is not to say to NOT introduce this element, but
limit them to add to the surprise element, but not introduce extraneous
elements, which serves to overload the working memory unnecessarily.
Self-Explanation:
Give players opportunities to explain an
example to themselves in terms of the underlying principle. Explain why it
works for the specific example? Learn to discern the general and the specific.
o Example
specific prompts: Question about why the explanation is only valid for the
specific action.
§ Explaining
Incorrect answers.
§ Explaining
Correct Answers.
o General
prompts: Questions about why the explanation is valid in general game
conditions.
§ Process
Prompts: Questions concerning the process or procedure.
· Notice:
What is new?
· Reason:
How does this impact my game?
·
Monitor: What is still missing from my understanding?
§
Connection Prompts: Questions that lead
the players to make connections. This is very important because of the
uniqueness of sports. Players must learn to make connections between sets of
actions to create seamless continuation of game action.
§ Anticipation
Prompts: Leading questions to entice students to extrapolate into “What if?”
questions and situations. Creates neural pathways within their System 1 for the
untested hypotheticals.
§ Principle
Prompts: Connecting the specific with the general. Connect with the
principle.
o What
Self Explanation Won’t Do: Getting players to teach themselves what they
don’t know. This is a cognition trap for coaches. This happens when coaches leave
their lessons unfinished, believing that the players can close the loop to
understanding by playing. They may, and they may not. Left to themselves, no
one knows until game time.
Goal Free Effect:
Removing goals from the learning
experience also removes interacting elements of learning. Removing the means-ends
connection, freeing up the working memory. Removing the focus on “Getting to
the answer”, removes the stress from the learning experience. Allow students to
focus on learning.
·
Principle: Focus on goals can lead to students
accomplishing goals and completing tasks without learning. Focus on learning.
· Preconditions:
Coaches control conditions during the learning experience.
o Restricted
Action: Simplify the conditions to unload the working memory.
o Rapid
Feedback: Quick alternations between action and result, to help players make
the connection.
o Reliable
Results: Make sure that action A results in Result A. This is very
difficult to control because of the amount of variables that exist in a sport. One
on one cause and effect lessons are next to impossible to make happen in sports.
This is why many coaches insist on perfect ball placement when tossing or
hitting while running drills, they want to make each repetition to be the same
to make sure that the player can experience the same experience until they
internalize the lesson. Of course, some will take this to extremes and never
introduce variations at all, which does not prepare the players for variability
and uncertainty, the opposite of what they had intended. It is a difficult
issue.
There are many ways to introduce and
implement structured practice ideas from Cognitive Load Theory. The small
examples I added are some ideas I had thought about, I don’t claim that they
are original, or complete. I am hoping that these small examples serve to
excite the minds of fellow coaches to create structured practices which serve
to free up the working memory and minimize the extraneous loads.
References
Guadagnoli, Mark and Timothy D. Lee. "Challenge
Point: a Framework for Conceptualizing the Effects of Various Practice
Conditions in Motor Learning." Journal of Motor Behavior, June
2004: 212-224.
Kahneman, Daniel. Thinking Fast and Slow.
NYC: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013.
Lovell, Oliver. Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory
in Action. Melton: John Catt Educational Ltd, 2020.
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